Archaeological implications of a widespread 13th Century tephra marker across the central Indonesian Archipelago

doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.11.020

Quaternary Science Reviews

Volume 155, 1 January 2017, Pages 86-99

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.11.020 Get rights and content

Highlights

•
A widespread mid-13th Century tephra is identified across central Indonesia.
•
This tephra is correlated to the Samalas 1257 A.D. eruption sourced from Lombok.
•
This eruption is registered globally in a variety of proxy records.
•
This tephra is useful in the dating of archaeological sites and structures in Indonesia.
•
Currently, there is no evidence linking this eruption to socio-political events of that time.

Abstract

Despite the occurrence of exceptionally large eruptions in the Indonesian Archipelago in recent historic times (i.e. Krakatoa 1883, Tambora 1815), no historic tephra beds have been widely identified in the terrestrial realm that could facilitate the correlation of equivalent aged sequences and/or archaeological remains. This study has identified one such tephra bed of 13th Century age that can be correlated throughout central-east Java and now can be unequivocally correlated with the Samalas 1257 A.D. tephra recently described from Lombok. The occurrence of this historic tephra marker extending ≥650 km west from its eruptive source provides the first opportunity to effect inter-regional correlation over large swathes of central Indonesia. It remains entirely conceivable that in the aftermath of this exceptionally large eruptive event there was considerable westward disruption to subsistence agriculture and trade, food shortages and famine, dislocation of affected populations and socio-political unrest on a scale that equalled or exceeded the catastrophic effects documented from the more recent Tambora 1815 A.D. eruption. Indeed the effects of this mid-13th Century eruption can be registered globally in a variety of records from Antarctica, Europe, Middle East and the Americas. Unfortunately, archaeological evidence indicating such disruption in mid-13th Century Indonesia is yet to be deciphered from the so-far sparse accounts and inscriptions of that time. However, this paucity of evidence does not diminish the utility of this widespread tephra bed as a unique chronostratigraphic marker for archaeological studies across large areas of central Indonesia.

Introduction

Globally, there are few examples where exceptionally large-magnitude eruptions have catastrophically impacted upon early historical human populations. The obvious examples are the eruption of Santorini (Thera) that extinguished the Cycladian Maritime culture in the eastern Mediterranean during the late Bronze Age (between c. 1662 and c. 1599 B.C., Bronk Ramsay et al., 2004), the 79 A.D. eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed the Roman towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii, the Terra Blanca Joven (TBJ) eruption of Volcán llopango in El Salvador between 440 and 550 A.D. that may explain an episode in Mayan history known as the Classic Period Hiatus (Dull et al., 2001, Dull et al., 2010) and the closely spaced eruptions of Tambora and Krakatoa in Indonesia whose direct and indirect effects resulted in widespread loss of life in 1815 and 1883 A.D., respectively. In this study we report upon a mid-13th Century eruption whose products are widely distributed across the central Indonesian archipelago, and like the Tambora 1815 A.D. eruption is likely to have had significant and far-reaching effects not only upon those populations residing around the eruptive centre itself but also those living hundreds of kilometers away on adjacent and down-wind islands. At the time of this 13th Century eruption, competing kingdoms flourished over large swathes of the western and central Indonesian archipelago with sophisticated networks of trade and commerce, and constructing elaborate temple complexes often with stone inscriptions and iconography that detailed religious doctrine, deities, rulers and their successors, military campaigns, and providing some limited insight into the socio-political conditions of the time. The purpose of this study is first to document the widespread occurrence of this 13th century eruptive event across east-central Java, compare its distribution with that of the Tambora 1815 A.D. eruption and its effects, and then explore the possible connection between this Samalas eruptive event and any archaeological evidence that might elude, either directly or indirectly, to the effects of this earlier widespread eruption.

Section snippets

Background

In the mid-1990's a centimeter-thick, yellow-brown coloured, vitric-rich tephra bed of fine ash grade was identified on the flanks of Merapi Volcano (Fig. 1) inter-bedded with locally sourced fall- and flow-units of late Holocene age. It was quickly recognized that this tephra (then informally named Muntilan tephra (Andreastuti, 2000, Andreastuti et al., 1996, Andreastuti et al., 2000)) was not sourced from Merapi Volcano on account of its unique mineralogy, glass geochemistry and consistent

Merapi Volcano (∼660 km from eruptive source)

At all localities on the flanks of Merapi Volcano (Fig. 1) and irrespective of their elevation with respect to the present-day summit, Muntilan tephra has a consistent yellow-brown colour, fine ash texture and thickness (2–3 cm) (SI Fig. 1). Here, Muntilan tephra is typically enveloped by centimeter-thick pumiceous and scoriaceous lapilli beds with ashy-pumiceous-medial andic soil inter-beds (Andreastuti, 2000, Andreastuti et al., 1996, Andreastuti et al., 2000). At many southern flank

Chronology

A total of eight radiocarbon samples have so far been obtained from Merapi and Ijen Volcanoes enabling minimum and maximum (bracketing) ages to be determined (Fig. 3; Table 1; SI Material 1.0). At many sites on the flanks for Merapi Volcano, Muntilan tephra is enveloped by PDC deposits (<20 cm thick), which often contain fine-grained charred plant debris. Two dates of c. 1249 ± 19 cal. A.D. (818 ± 28 ¹⁴C years B.P., OZ-T978) and c. 1277 ± 46 cal. A.D. (780 ± 50 ¹⁴C years B.P., Wk-4404) were

Glass shard geochemistry and correlation

Glass shard major element determinations (SI Material 2.0) were conducted on proximal occurrences of Samalas Tephra (Phase 4) on the north-western and northern coast of Lombok. Correlatives from Merapi, Bromo and Ijen (previously named Muntilan tephra (Andreastuti, 2000, Andreastuti et al., 2000)) were also analysed for comparative purposes (Fig. 4, Fig. 5; Table 2; see SI Table 1). Results from distal and proximal Muntilan tephra are indistinguishable and showing a consistently broad

Glass shard morphology

Backscatter imaging of glass shards from proximal to distal sites reveal strong morphological similarities. Typically the shards are highly vesicular with thin arcuate-shaped walls. As previously noted (Vidal et al., 2015) sub-micrometer-sized crystal inclusions of Fe-Ti oxides, feldspars and pyroxenes occur dispersed within the glassy matrix. Another obvious feature of proximal to distal occurrences of Samalas Tephra are conspicuous aggregates of finely comminuted glassy fragments adhering to

Distribution

Thickness values for Muntilan tephra across Java vary from ∼2 to 3 cm at Merapi Volcano (∼660 km west of eruptive source) to 15 cm at Bromo (∼380 km) and a maximum thickness of 22 cm at Ijen (∼240 km) (Fig. 6A). With the exception of Merapi occurrences where multiple and consistent measurements were made – Muntilan tephra at Kelut, Bromo and Ijen are laterally discontinuous and where present exhibit bedding features indicative of anthropogenic disturbance (Kelut), overthickening either by

The Tambora eruption analogue

In the aftermath of the exceptionally large and widespread Samalas eruption occurring in 1257 A.D. at Rinjani Volcanic Complex (RVC) on Lombok Island (Lavigne et al., 2013), it is very likely there was considerable westward disruption to subsistence agriculture, food shortages and famine, dislocation of affected populations, trade disruption and socio-political unrest over large areas of the central Indonesian archipelago on a scale that equalled or even exceeded the catastrophic effects

The utility of Samalas Tephra for inter-regional archaeological studies

The distinct lack of archaeological references within those realms that might associate the expected effects of the largest tropical eruption of the last two millennia to socio-political events of that time is both surprising and inordinately frustrating. However, the physical occurrence of the tephra itself may be just as important for the dating of equivalent-aged sequences that are intimately associated with contemporary or earlier archaeological sites and structures. Currently there are at

Acknowledgements

This research originates from a PhD related fieldwork conducted by SA and supervised by BVA under a NZODA study award as part of a Development Cooperation Programme between New Zealand and the Republic of Indonesia. The PhD scholarship awarded to SA was provided by the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT). Dr's Wimpy Tjetjep, R. Sukhyar, M.A. Purbawinata, and A. Ratdomorpurbo, are all thanked for their contributions to, and support of, this PhD research in the late 90's. The

References (33)

S. Andreastuti et al.
Preliminary stratigraphy and geochemistry of mid to late Holocene tephra beds from Merapi Volcano, central Java, Indonesia
J. VolcON. Geotherm. Res.
(2000)
J. Kandlbauer et al.
New estimates of the 1815 Tambora eruption volume
Journ. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.
(2014)
C.G. Newhall et al.
Reconnaissance pyroclastic stratigraphy of Merapi volcano, central Java: >7,000 years of explosive eruptions
Journ. VolcON. Geotherm. Res.
(2000)
J. Adams et al.
Proxy evidence for an El Nino-like response to volcanic forcing
Nature
(2003)
S. Andreastuti
Stratigraphy and geochemistry of Merapi Volcano, Central Java, Indonesia: Implications for the Assessment of Volcanic Hazards
(2000)
S. Andreastuti et al.
Preliminary stratigraphy and geochemistry of mid to late Holocene tephra beds from Merapi Volcano, central Java, Indonesia
S.D. Andreastuti et al.
Programme and field guide for the coordinating committee for geoscience programmes in east and southeast Asia (CCOP)
Anonymous, 1265. Chronica minor Auctore Minorita Erphordiensi, Societas Aperiendis Fontibus Rerum Germanicarum Medii...
C. Bronk Ramsay et al.
Dating the volcanic eruption at Thera
Radiocarbon
(2004)
R.A. Dull et al.
Volcanism, ecology and culture: a reassessment of the Volcán Ilopango TBJ eruption in the southern Maya realm
Lat. Am. Antiq.
(2001)

R.A. Dull et al.

Did the TBJ Llopango eruption cause the A.D. 536 event?

East India Company

Asiat. J. Mon. Misc.

(1816)

J. Emile-Geay et al.

Volcanoes and ENSO over the past millennium

Journ. Clim.

(2008)

A. Hubbard

Java Government Gazette, No. 169

(1815)

John de Taxter, 1265. Chronica Buriensis, edited and translated into English by a. Gransden, Nelson, London, 1964, pp....

F. Lavigne et al.

Source of the great A.D. 1257 mystery eruption unveiled, Salamas volcano, Rinjani Volcanic Complex, Indonesia

Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.

(2013)

Cited by (14)

The 1257 CE cataclysmic eruption of Samalas volcano (Indonesia) revealed by indigenous written sources: Forgotten kingdoms, emergency response, and societal recovery
2022, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
Historical and archaeological findings have revealed that many human civilizations have been strongly affected by natural hazards, such as volcanic eruptions. An issue that still lacks attention is the response of ancient populations following eruptions as well as their resilience strategies. Three written sources from Lombok, Indonesia, provide descriptions of the ancient landscape of Lombok and the population's response to the Samalas volcano eruption in 1257 CE. The sources depict the conditions of Lombok and the surrounding areas during the pre-, onset-, and post-eruption phases of a catastrophic volcanic eruption with a volcanic explosivity index 7. Various responses of the inhabitants to the eruption are described in the sources, such as fleeing to the hills, avoiding hazards, and escaping to neighboring villages or islands. Several geographic features and toponyms are mentioned, allowing us to reconstruct the evacuation process during the crisis period. The sources also describe recovery strategies in the post-eruption period, including governance strategies, the rebuilding of cities and villages, and agriculture. The historical record suggests that Lombok may have taken up to a century to recover from the eruption and that new kingdoms and principalities became established by the fourteenth century. Disaster management related to the eruption is described in the texts from Lombok, but not in older written sources from Indonesia.
Prospects and pitfalls in integrating volcanology and archaeology: A review
2020, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
Citation Excerpt :
Following this discovery, an international transdisciplinary team was formed to conserve the rock art and collect data from the shell middens, ceramic and lithic material, and faunal remains the cave contains. Using major and trace-element glass shard geochemistry at least ten eruptions with tephra distribution comparable or greater than the 2008 eruption have occurred since the Last Glacial Maximum (c. 18kya cal BP), prior to which point the stratigraphic record is largely absent due to glaciation (Alloway et al., 2017a, 2017b). The direction of the cave openings mean that consistent layers of tephra are not present in the caves, yet what is preserved is evidence of human occupation during repeated volcanic events.
Volcanic eruptions and interactions with the landforms and products these yield, are a constant feature of human life in many parts of the world. Seen over long timespans, human–volcano interactions become stratified in sedimentary archives containing eruptive products and archaeological remains. This review is concerned with charting the overlapping territory of volcanology and archaeology and attempts to plot productive routes for further conjoined research. We define archaeological volcanology as a field of study that brings together incentives, insights, and methods from both volcanology and from archaeology in an effort to better understand both past volcanism as well as past cultural change, and to improve risk management practices as well as the contemporary engagement with volcanism and its products. There is an increasing appreciation that understanding these human impacts and manifold human-volcano interactions requires robust multi-, inter- or even trans-disciplinary collaboration. Our review is written in the hope of providing a clearinghouse resource that (i) maps the many forms of past human-volcano interactions, (ii) provides study design templates for how to integrate archaeological perspectives into investigations of past volcanism, and (iii) makes suggestions for how the insights gained from such an archaeological volcanology can be integrated into reducing contemporary and future vulnerability amongst at-risk communities.
Radiocarbon and geologic evidence reveal Ilopango volcano as source of the colossal ‘mystery’ eruption of 539/40 CE
2019, Quaternary Science Reviews
Citation Excerpt :
Other than geologically rare bolide impact events, explosive volcanic eruptions have the greatest capacity to impact human populations worldwide via climate forcing due to stratospheric aerosol loading (Rampino et al., 1988; Robock, 2002; Self, 2006). The climate impacts of major historical eruptions such as that of the 1815 Tambora and 1991 Pinatubo events have received particular attention since the volcano protagonists are known (Oppenheimer, 2003; Stothers, 1984a); still other major climate forcing eruptions such as the 1257 CE eruption of Samalas have only recently been revealed (Alloway et al., 2017; Lavigne et al., 2013). One of the largest and most persistent atmospheric loading events in recorded history (Rampino et al., 1988) commenced in 536 CE when stratospheric volcanic aerosol enveloped the Northern Hemisphere, initially for ∼18 months (Arjava, 2005; Baillie, 1994, 2008; Gunn, 2000; Keys, 2000; Stothers, 1984a), followed by a second climatically-significant eruption occurring in 539 or 540 CE (Gautier et al., 2019; Sigl et al., 2015).
Ilopango volcano (El Salvador) erupted violently during the Maya Classic Period (250–900 CE) in a densely-populated and intensively-cultivated region of the southern Maya realm, causing regional abandonment of an area covering more than 20,000 km². However, neither the regional nor global impacts of the Tierra Blanca Joven (TBJ) eruption in Mesoamerica have been well appraised due to limitations in available volcanological, chronological, and archaeological observations. Here we present new evidence of the age, magnitude and sulfur release of the TBJ eruption, establishing it as one of the two hitherto unidentified volcanic triggers of a period of stratospheric aerosol loading that profoundly impacted Northern Hemisphere climate and society between circa 536 and 550 CE. Our chronology is derived from 100 new radiocarbon measurements performed on three subfossil tree trunks enveloped in proximal TBJ pyroclastic deposits. We also reassess the eruption magnitude using terrestrial (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras) and near-shore marine TBJ tephra deposit thickness measurements. Together, our new constraints on the age, eruption size (43.6 km³ Dense Rock Equivalent of magma, magnitude = 7.0) and sulfur yield (∼9–90 Tg), along with Ilopango's latitude (13.7° N), squarely frame the TBJ as the major climate-forcing eruption of 539 or 540 CE identified in bipolar ice cores and sourced to the tropics. In addition to deepening appreciation of the TBJ eruption's impacts in Mesoamerica, linking it to the major Northern Hemisphere climatic downturn of the mid-6th century CE offers another piece in the puzzle of understanding Eurasian history of the period.
Multiple sources for tephra from AD 1259 volcanic signal in Antarctic ice cores
2019, Quaternary Science Reviews
Citation Excerpt :
According to Gennaretti et al. (2014), tree-ring-based temperature reconstruction from northeastern North America displays an abrupt cooling regime shift that chronologically coincides with the occurrence of a series of eruptions centred around the AD 1257 Samalas event suggesting volcanic impact on the local forests and ice-caps. Moreover, indirect geological sources show occurrence of an El Nino-like event in the Americas and SE Asia in the year after the mega-eruption that suggests a causal connection between the volcanic event and the climate anomaly (Emile-Geay et al., 2008; Alloway et al., 2017). In the Antarctic record, the 13th century appears exceptionally rich in conspicuous volcanic signals, with the AD 1259 being the most prominent (e.g., Cole-Dai et al., 2000).
Strong volcanic signals simultaneously recorded in polar ice sheets are commonly assigned to major low-latitude eruptions that dispersed large quantities of aerosols in the global atmosphere with the potential of inducing climate perturbations. Parent eruptions responsible for specific events are typically deduced from matching to a known volcanic eruption having coincidental date. However, more robust source linkage can be achieved only through geochemical characterisation of the airborne volcanic glass products (tephra) sometimes preserved in the polar strata. We analysed fine-grained tephra particles extracted from layers of the AD 1259 major bipolar volcanic signal in four East Antarctic ice cores drilled in different widely-spaced locations on the Antarctic Plateau. The very large database of glass-shard geochemistry combined with grain size analyses consistently indicate that the material was sourced from multiple distinct eruptions. These are the AD 1257 mega-eruption of Samalas volcano in Indonesia, recently proposed to be the single event responsible for the polar signal, as well as a newly-identified Antarctic eruption, which occurred in northern Victoria Land in AD 1259. Finally, a further eruption that took place somewhere outside of Antarctica has also contributed to tephra deposition. Our high-resolution, multiple-site approach was critical for revealing spatial heterogeneity of tephra at the continental scale. Evidence from ice-core tephra indicates recurrent explosive activity at the Antarctic volcanoes and could have implications for improved reconstruction of post-volcanic effects on climate from proxy polar records.
Integrating the Holocene tephrostratigraphy for East Asia using a high-resolution cryptotephra study from Lake Suigetsu (SG14 core), central Japan
2018, Quaternary Science Reviews
Citation Excerpt :
The importance of palaeoenvironmental archives for our understanding of abrupt climate change is well recognised, but it is essential that these records can be precisely integrated and dated to assess their ultimate drivers operating across large regional scales (e.g., the East Asian Monsoon; EAM). Widely dispersed volcanic ash (tephra) layers preserved in sedimentary sequences can provide ideal isochronous markers to facilitate high-precision correlations (tephrostratigraphy) and transfer absolute ages (tephrochronology) across palaeoclimate records (e.g., Albert et al., 2013; Lane et al., 2014; Abbott et al., 2016; Alloway et al., 2017). These markers can facilitate the assessment of the spatio-temporal variability of abrupt climate change, particularly when they bracket the onset or duration of these events (e.g., Lane et al., 2013).
Tephra (volcanic ash) layers have the potential to synchronise disparate palaeoenvironmental archives on regional to hemispheric scales. Highly productive arc regions, like those in East Asia, offer a considerable number of widespread isochrons, but before records can be confidently correlated using these layers, a refined and integrated framework of these eruptive events is required. Here we present the first high-resolution Holocene cryptotephra study in East Asia, using the Lake Suigetsu sedimentary archive in central Japan. The Holocene tephrostratigraphy has been extended from four to twenty ash layers using cryptotephra extraction techniques, which integrates the deposits from explosive eruptions from North Korea/China, South Korea and along the Japanese arc. This Lake Suigetsu tephrostratigraphy is now the most comprehensive record of East Asian volcanism, and the linchpin site for correlating sequences across this region. Major element glass geochemical compositions are presented for the tephra layers in the sequence, which have been compared to proximal datasets to correlate them to their volcanic source and specific eruptions. This study has significantly extended the ash dispersal of many key Holocene marker layers, and has identified the first distal occurrence of isochrons from Ulleungdo and Changbaishan volcanoes. Utilising the high-precision Lake Suigetsu chronology, we are able to provide constrained eruption ages for the tephra layers, which can be transferred into other site-specific age models containing these markers. This new framework indicates that several isochrons stratigraphically bracket abrupt climate intervals in Japan, and could be used to precisely assess the regional and hemispheric synchronicity of these events.
Correlating tephras and cryptotephras using glass compositional analyses and numerical and statistical methods: Review and evaluation
2017, Quaternary Science Reviews
We define tephras and cryptotephras and their components (mainly ash-sized particles of glass ± crystals in distal deposits) and summarize the basis of tephrochronology as a chronostratigraphic correlational and dating tool for palaeoenvironmental, geological, and archaeological research. We then document and appraise recent advances in analytical methods used to determine the major, minor, and trace elements of individual glass shards from tephra or cryptotephra deposits to aid their correlation and application. Protocols developed recently for the electron probe microanalysis of major elements in individual glass shards help to improve data quality and standardize reporting procedures. A narrow electron beam (diameter ∼3–5 μm) can now be used to analyze smaller glass shards than previously attainable. Reliable analyses of ‘microshards’ (defined here as glass shards <32 μm in diameter) using narrow beams are useful for fine-grained samples from distal or ultra-distal geographic locations, and for vesicular or microlite-rich glass shards or small melt inclusions. Caveats apply, however, in the microprobe analysis of very small microshards (≤∼5 μm in diameter), where particle geometry becomes important, and of microlite-rich glass shards where the potential problem of secondary fluorescence across phase boundaries needs to be recognised. Trace element analyses of individual glass shards using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), with crater diameters of 20 μm and 10 μm, are now effectively routine, giving detection limits well below 1 ppm. Smaller ablation craters (<10 μm) can be subject to significant element fractionation during analysis, but the systematic relationship of such fractionation with glass composition suggests that analyses for some elements at these resolutions may be quantifiable. In undertaking analyses, either by microprobe or LA-ICP-MS, reference material data acquired using the same procedure, and preferably from the same analytical session, should be presented alongside new analytical data.
In part 2 of the review, we describe, critically assess, and recommend ways in which tephras or cryptotephras can be correlated (in conjunction with other information) using numerical or statistical analyses of compositional data. Statistical methods provide a less subjective means of dealing with analytical data pertaining to tephra components (usually glass or crystals/phenocrysts) than heuristic alternatives. They enable a better understanding of relationships among the data from multiple viewpoints to be developed and help quantify the degree of uncertainty in establishing correlations. In common with other scientific hypothesis testing, it is easier to infer using such analysis that two or more tephras are different rather than the same. Adding stratigraphic, chronological, spatial, or palaeoenvironmental data (i.e. multiple criteria) is usually necessary and allows for more robust correlations to be made. A two-stage approach is useful, the first focussed on differences in the mean composition of samples, or their range, which can be visualised graphically via scatterplot matrices or bivariate plots coupled with the use of statistical tools such as distance measures, similarity coefficients, hierarchical cluster analysis (informed by distance measures or similarity or cophenetic coefficients), and principal components analysis (PCA). Some statistical methods (cluster analysis, discriminant analysis) are referred to as ‘machine learning’ in the computing literature. The second stage examines sample variance and the degree of compositional similarity so that sample equivalence or otherwise can be established on a statistical basis. This stage may involve discriminant function analysis (DFA), support vector machines (SVMs), canonical variates analysis (CVA), and ANOVA or MANOVA (or its two-sample special case, the Hotelling two-sample T² test). Randomization tests can be used where distributional assumptions such as multivariate normality underlying parametric tests are doubtful.
Compositional data may be transformed and scaled before being subjected to multivariate statistical procedures including calculation of distance matrices, hierarchical cluster analysis, and PCA. Such transformations may make the assumption of multivariate normality more appropriate. A sequential procedure using Mahalanobis distance and the Hotelling two-sample T² test is illustrated using glass major element data from trachytic to phonolitic Kenyan tephras. All these methods require a broad range of high-quality compositional data which can be used to compare ‘unknowns’ with reference (training) sets that are sufficiently complete to account for all possible correlatives, including tephras with heterogeneous glasses that contain multiple compositional groups. Currently, incomplete databases are tending to limit correlation efficacy. The development of an open, online global database to facilitate progress towards integrated, high-quality tephrostratigraphic frameworks for different regions is encouraged.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

Archaeological implications of a widespread 13th Century tephra marker across the central Indonesian Archipelago

Highlights

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Background

Merapi Volcano (∼660 km from eruptive source)

Chronology

Glass shard geochemistry and correlation

Glass shard morphology

Distribution

The Tambora eruption analogue

The utility of Samalas Tephra for inter-regional archaeological studies

Acknowledgements

J. VolcON. Geotherm. Res.

Journ. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

Journ. VolcON. Geotherm. Res.

Proxy evidence for an El Nino-like response to volcanic forcing

Nature

Stratigraphy and geochemistry of Merapi Volcano, Central Java, Indonesia: Implications for the Assessment of Volcanic Hazards

Preliminary stratigraphy and geochemistry of mid to late Holocene tephra beds from Merapi Volcano, central Java, Indonesia

Programme and field guide for the coordinating committee for geoscience programmes in east and southeast Asia (CCOP)

Dating the volcanic eruption at Thera

Radiocarbon

Volcanism, ecology and culture: a reassessment of the Volcán Ilopango TBJ eruption in the southern Maya realm

Lat. Am. Antiq.